Photovoltaic panels (solar panels) are routinely used to convert sunlight into electrical energy. In many photovoltaic systems, large arrays of photovoltaic panels are used to generate electrical energy. For example, an array could include a number of photovoltaic panels coupled in series to form a string, and multiple strings (possibly a large number of strings) can be coupled in parallel.
For some arrays, a direct current-to-direct current (DC-to-DC) controller is used with each individual photovoltaic panel or with subsets of photovoltaic panels (such as each string of panels). The DC-to-DC controllers represent voltage/current converters that can alter the power generated by the photovoltaic panels. The DC-to-DC controllers can be used to help increase array efficiency and overcome panel manufacturing tolerances, panel aging, and shading variations from panel to panel.